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mice whose bone healing capacity is impaired compared to that of wild-type equivalents, administration of human BMMSC-EVs rescued the delay in fracture healing, and accelerated bone repair in wild types [87].
Enhanced neurogenesis and cognitive function recovery [67]
How November 23 Lottery Scratch Cards Injection/100 μg total EV protein
Increased cardiac repair, left ventricular function, vascularization, and reduced apoptosis and hypertrophy [74]
EV-scaffold transplantation/1 μg of total EV protein in 1 μL PBS
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EV-scaffold transplantation/5 × 10
Zhu, Q.; Li, Q.; Niu, X.; Zhang, G.; Ling, X.; Zhang, J.; Wang, Y.; Deng, Z. Extracellular vesicles secreted by human urine-derived stem cells promote ischemia repair in a mouse model of hind-limb ischemia. Cell. Physiol. Biochem. 2018, 47, 1181–1192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Tomasoni, S.; Longaretti, L.; Rota, C.; Morigi, M.; Conti, S.; Gotti, E.; Capelli, C.; Introna, M.; Remuzzi, G.; Benigni, A. Transfer of growth factor receptor mRNA via exosomes unravels the regenerative effect of mesenchymal stem cells. Stem Cells Dev. 2012, 22, 772–780. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
Sustain delivery of MSC-EVs improved myocardial function by reducing inflammation, fibrosis and apoptosis, and by promoting angiogenesis [82]
Diomede, F.; Gugliandolo, A.; Cardelli, P.; Merciaro, I.; Ettorre, V.; Traini, T.; Bedini, R.; Scionti, D.; Bramanti, A.; Nanci, A.; et al. Three-dimensional printed PLA scaffold and human gingival stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles: a new tool for bone defect repair. Stem Cell Res. Ther. 2018, 9, 104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
With respect to brain damage, rat BMMSC-EVs have been assessed in traumatic brain injury (TBI) rat models. Overall, EV treatment improved recovery of brain function after TBI by increasing the number of newly-generated immature and mature neurons in the dentate gyrus as well as the number of newly-generated endothelial cells in the lesion boundary zone and dentate gyrus [59].
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Injection/10 µg total EV protein in 2 µL PBS
Jiang, Z.-Z.; Liu, Y.-M.; Niu, X.; Yin, J.-Y.; Hu, B.; Guo, S.-C.; Fan, Y.; Wang, Y.; Wang, N. Exosomes secreted by human urine-derived stem cells could prevent kidney complications from type I diabetes in rats. Stem Cell Res. Ther. 2016, 7, 24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
The impact of MSC-EVs has also been investigated in spinal cord injuries (SCI). SCI is frequently associated with microvascular stability disruption and an increase in blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB) permeability, mainly caused by abnormal migration of pericytes [60,61]. Notably, treatment with mouse BMMSC-EVs inhibited the migration of pericytes and thereby improved the structural integrity of the BSCB and, in turn, the motor function in a SCI rat model [62]. Another potent mechanism of spinal cord recovery upon BMMSC-EVs treatment suggested the prevention of neuronal apoptosis through the activation of the Wnt/β-catenin signalling pathway [63]. Furthermore, in an SCI model, modification of rat BMMSC-EVs with miR-133b caused activation of the ERK1/2, STAT3 pathway. This resulted in enhanced neuron preservation, axon regeneration, and locomotor function, when compared to treatment with BMMSC-EVs that had not been modified to carry miR-133b [64].
Enhanced tubular epithelial cell proliferation, reduced cell apoptosis [115]
Cells, EISSN 2073-4409, Published by MDPI
Ma, Y.; Ge, S.; Zhang, J.; Zhou, D.; Li, L.; Wang, X.; Su, J. Mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles promote nerve regeneration after sciatic nerve crush injury in rats. Int. J. Clin. Exp. Pathol. 2017, 10, 10032–10039. [Google Scholar]
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PDF) Harmonization and Standardization of Panel Based Tumor Mutational Burden (TMB) Measurement: Real World Results and Recommendations of the QuIP Study Enhanced myofiber regeneration and biomechanical properties of muscles in rotator cuffs [144]
Injection/100 μg total EV protein in 500 μL PBS
Figure 2. EV biogenesis and secretion: exosomes are assembled in multivesicular bodies where specific cargos are sorted into exosomes and subsequently released in the extracellular space. Microvesicles are formed from budding of the cell membrane. Apoptotic bodies are generated from apoptotic cells.
Sequential ultracentrifugation (up to 110,000× g)
Reduced virus shedding, production of proinflammatory cytokines, and influenza virus-induced lung lesions [161]
Injection/4.5 μg total EV protein
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Protected renal injury via microRNA-dependent repairing [129,130]
Small-size EVs, most of which were previously termed as exosomes, are vesicles ranging from 30–150 nm. The biogenesis of the small-size EVs occurs initially with the formation of early endosomes from endocytoses of the cell membrane (Figure 2). During the process of maturation, the early endosomes become endosomes or multivesicular bodies and they begin to accumulate intraluminal vesicles, which either degraded by lysosomes or are released as exosomes in the extracellular space [27]. Medium- and large-size EVs, previously described as microvesicles or ectosomes, are large vesicles between 100–1000 nm diameter. Their biogenesis occurs via the direct budding of the cell membrane and releasing into the extracellular space [28,29]. While apoptotic bodies are also large-size vesicles, ranging from 1–5 mm, they originate specifically from apoptotic cells [30].
Gatti, S.; Bruno, S.; Deregibus, M.C.; Sordi, A.; Cantaluppi, V.; Tetta, C.; Camussi, G. Microvesicles derived from human adult mesenchymal stem cells protect against ischaemia-reperfusion-induced acute and chronic kidney injury. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 2011, 26, 1474–1483. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
Injection of allogenic UMMSC-EVS (100 μg of total EV protein per kg per dose)
Download PDF with Cover
Infusion/0.4 μg total EV protein in 1 mL PBS
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Polsek Kualuh Hilir Tangkap Penulis Togel, Bosnya Kabur Improved recovery of brain function by increasing the number of number of neurons and endothelial cells in the lesion boundary zone and dentate gyrus [59]
particles in hydroxyethyl cellulose aqueous gel
EV-scaffold transplantation/1 × 10
There is increasing evidence that many, if not all, of the beneficial effects of MSCs may be attributed to their paracrine action via the release of extracellular vehicles (EVs), rather than cellular engraftment and response to the site of injury [20,21,22]; suggesting that MSC-EVs can produce any therapeutic benefits of MSCs [23]. Added to their attractiveness, compared to the original MSCs, MSC-EVs cannot self-replicating, preventing safety concerns associated with cell therapy, such as uncontrolled cell division and cellular contamination with tumorigenic cells [24]. Moreover, as MSCs often require invasive procedures in order to be isolated, approaches that only require them to be cultured in vitro and their released product used (i.e., EVs) gives hope for increased scalability and yield per MSC batch [25], with filtration suggested to be suitable sterilisation because of their small size [26].
Lu, Z.; Chen, Y.; Dunstan, C.; Roohani-Esfahani, S.-I.; Zreiqat, H. Priming adipose stem cells with tumor necrosis factor-alpha preconditioning potentiates their exosome efficacy for bone regeneration. Tissue Eng. Part A 2017, 23, 1212–1220. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
However, there are still challenges to the development of MSC-EVs for clinical use. From a practical point-of-view, a major challenge is establishing the optimal reliably, reproducible and robust methodologies for isolation and purification of the therapeutic EVs and their large-scale production at cGMP standard for clinical utility. Moreover, maybe yet from a more fundamental research point-of-view is to establish which sub-populations (if not all) of the heterogenous EV populations are therapeutically beneficially. The clear classification into different subtypes is still under investigation. Further research is also warranted to establish suitable therapeutic doses and optimal route(s) of administration for clinical utility in the future.
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The paracrine effects of MSCs —through the use of their EVs— also offer a potential alternative approach for skeletal regeneration. To this end, EVs from different sources of MSCs are being investigated for bone reconstruction after injury. It was noted that human BMMSC-EVs and human iPSCs-EVs stimulated osteogenic differentiation of BMMSCs in vitro, and bone formation and angiogenesis BMMSCs in vivo in rat models with critical-sized calvarial defects [83,84]. To enhance the bone healing, the human BMMSC-EVs were modified with dimethyloxaloylglycin, which resulted in further stimulation of angiogenesis through the Akt/mTOR pathway [85]. The efficacy of EVs derived from human ADMSCs towards bone regeneration was also enhanced by pre-conditioning the MSCs with the cytokine tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), as was evidenced by increased proliferation and osteogenic differentiation of osteoblastic cells in vitro [86]. Furthermore, in a femoral shaft fracture model of CD9
Qi, X.; Zhang, J.; Yuan, H.; Xu, Z.; Li, Q.; Niu, X.; Hu, B.; Wang, Y.; Li, X.-L. Exosomes secreted by human-induced pluripotent stem cell-derived mesenchymal stem cells repair critical-sized bone defects through enhanced angiogenesis and osteogenesis in osteoporotic rats. Int. J. Boil. Sci. 2016, 12, 836–849. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
Reduced CKD progression by inhibiting podocyte apoptosis and promoting vascular regeneration and cell survival [125]
Injection to implanted scaffolds/100 μg of total EV protein in 200 μL PBS
Xie, H.; Wang, Z.; Zhang, L.; Lei, Q.; Zhao, A.; Wang, H.; Li, Q.; Cao, Y.; Zhang, W.J.; Chen, Z.-C. Extracellular vesicle-functionalized decalcified bone matrix scaffolds with enhanced pro-angiogenic and pro-bone regeneration activities. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7, 45622. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Muscle damage associated to critical limb ischemia
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EV-scaffold transplantation/40 μg of total EV protein
search results for ramalan prediksi pas togel oregon 06>>Jumbototo Daftar Login Link Alternatif Jumbo toto TerpercayaJumbototo Daftar Login Link Alternatif Jumbo toto Terpercaya Velnar, T.; Bailey, T.; Smrkolj, V. The wound healing process: an overview of the cellular and molecular mechanisms. J. Int. Med Res. 2009, 37, 1528–1542. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Bandar Togel Jaringan Internasional Ditangkap, Modusnya Ajak Ribuan Petani Main Judi Online mice, and accelerated bone repair in wild types [87]
Biological approaches to improve skeletal muscle healing after injury and disease Huang, P.; Wang, L.; Li, Q.; Xu, J.; Xu, J.; Xiong, Y.; Chen, G.; Qian, H.; Jin, C.; Yu, Y.; et al. Combinatorial treatment of acute myocardial infarction using stem cells and their derived exosomes resulted in improved heart performance. Stem Cell Res. Ther. 2019, 10, 300–312. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
Zhang, B.; Shi, Y.; Gong, A.; Pan, Z.; Shi, H.; Yang, H.; Fu, H.; Yan, Y.; Zhang, X.; Wang, M.; et al. HucMSC exosome-delivered 14-3-3zeta orchestrates self-control of the Wnt response via modulation of YAP during cutaneous regeneration. Stem Cells 2016, 34, 2485–2500. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Ju, G.-Q.; Cheng, J.; Zhong, L.; Wu, S.; Zou, X.-Y.; Zhang, G.-Y.; Gu, D.; Miao, S.; Zhu, Y.-J.; Sun, J.; et al. Microvesicles derived from human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells facilitate tubular epithelial cell dedifferentiation and growth via hepatocyte growth factor induction. PLoS ONE 2015, 10, e0121534. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
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Enhanced proliferation of Schwann cells in the site of peripheral nerve injuries via internalisation [53]
Administration of allogenic MSC-EVs enriched with miR-124 (200 μg total EV protein) via Stereotaxis
Cara Hitung Togel 4D Jitu: Rahasia Mengungkap Angka Kemenangan Togel BMMSC-EVs together with cartilage ECM/ gelatin methacrylate hydrogel have been used to create a 3D printed device, which favoured cartilage regeneration [109]
Tögel, F.; Weiss, K.; Yang, Y.; Hu, Z.; Zhang, P.; Westenfelder, C. Vasculotropic, paracrine actions of infused mesenchymal stem cells are important to the recovery from acute kidney injury. Am. J. Physiol. Physiol. 2007, 292, F1626–F1635. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed][Green Version]
Wang, C.; Song, W.; Chen, B.; Liu, X.; He, Y. Exosomes isolated from adipose-derived stem cells: a new cell-free approach to prevent the muscle degeneration associated with torn rotator cuffs. Am. J. Sports Med. 2019, 47, 3247–3255. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
MSC-EV immobilised constructs showed higher osteo-inductive ability and long-term stability for bone graft modification [91]
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EV-scaffold transplantation/20 μg of total EV protein in 20 μL PBS
With the aim of augmenting scaffold performance and thereby improving bone healing, tissue engineered-constructs have been combined with MSC-EVs. Thus, human ADMSC-EVs were immobilised to poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) and biotin-doped polypyrrole titanium scaffolds. In vitro studies of scaffolds functionalised with the EVs versus unmodified scaffolds showed the former to results in higher osteo-inductivity of BMMSCs and osteoblasts, while in vivo studies using murine models of bone defects showed significantly greater bone tissue and mature collagen formation [90,91]. Additionally, human BMMSC-EVs loaded into tricalcium phosphate scaffolds enhanced bone healing of calvarial defects by activation PI3K/Akt signalling pathway [92], whilst rat BMMSC-EVs encapsulated into decalcified bone matrix scaffolds stimulated bone regeneration by promoting vascularisation in the grafts [93]. Moreover, three-dimensional polylactic acid scaffolds functionalised with human gingival MSCs have been used as a therapeutic tool for bone tissue engineering, with promising osteogenic properties and response in rat models of cortical calvaria bone damage [94].
Moreover, human UCMSC-EVs have been reported to intensively promote the healing of second-degree burn wounds in vivo, mediated mainly by the activation of Wnt/β-catenin signalling pathway and subsequent increased dermal fibroblasts proliferation, angiogenesis, and reduced skin cell apoptosis [156,157,158]. Wound healing and suppressed scar formation have been facilitated by inhibiting myofibroblast differentiation at the site of skin defects by treating with human UCMSC-EVs. This therapeutic benefit of EVs has been particularly credited to the activities of specific microRNAs (namely, miR-21, -23a, -125b, and -145) [159].
Aerosol inhalation of allogenic ADMSC-EVs (2 × 10
Peripheral nerve injury (in vitro)
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In this setting, some studies have done direct comparisons of MSCs versus MSC-EVs and as a result have highlighted the added beneficial effects of EVs compared to their MSCs of origin. In one such study, murine induced pluripotent mesenchymal stem cells (iPSCs)-EVs and human amniotic fluid-derived mesenchymal stem cells (hAFS) were found to improve cardiac repair in MI murine models and trigger cardiac regeneration via paracrine modulation of endogenous mechanisms. The administered EVs also exhibiting a safer profile when compared to the administration of their cells of origin [74,75]. However, in another MI rat model study, combinatorial treatment with both rat BMMSCs and their derived EVs further improved cardiac function, reduced infarct size, and increased neovascularisation when compared to experimental groups treated with either BMMSCs or BMMSC-EVs alone [76].
Fibroblasts from normal and chronic wound patients (in vitro)
Doyle, L.M.; Wang, M.Z. Overview of extracellular vesicles, their origin, composition, purpose, and methods for exosome isolation and analysis. Cells 2019, 8, 727. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed][Green Version]
Reduced neuroinflammation, demyelination and improved motor function
Reduced the progression of CDK [132]
Injection/3 µg total EV protein in 200 µL PBS
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For dental regeneration, the addition of EVs derived from human dental pulp MSCs resulted in odontogenic differentiation in vitro as a results of endocytosis of the EVs, subsequent activation of the P38 mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway, and regeneration of dental pulp-like tissue in a tooth root slice model [88]. Moreover, MSC-EVs promoted periodontal ligament cell migration and proliferation through CD73-mediated adenosine receptor activation of pro-survival Akt and ERK signalling and periodontal regeneration in a rat periodontal defect model [89].
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Volarevic, V.; Markovic, B.S.; Gazdic, M.; Volarevic, A.; Jovicic, N.; Arsenijević, N.; Armstrong, L.; Djonov, V.; Lako, M.; Stojkovic, M. Ethical and safety issues of stem cell-based therapy. Int. J. Med Sci. 2018, 15, 36–45. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
Enhanced wound healing and reduced scar formation through inhibition of myofibroblast differentiation [159]
Injection/Single dose of 100 μg of total EV protein or multiple doses of 100 μg of total EV protein after cisplatin administration and 50 μg of total EV protein after 2, 6, 10, 14, and 18 days
Togel Online Togel Singapore Togel Hongkong Bandar Peripheral nerve regeneration and neurite growth in sciatic nerve defects through Schwann cell (SC) modulation [52]
Sciatic peripheral nerve crush
Increased odontogenic differentiation regeneration of dental pulp-like tissue [88]
Pfeifer, P.; Werner, N.; Jansen, F. Role and function of microRNAs in extracellular vesicles in cardiovascular biology. BioMed Res. Int. 2015, 2015, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
Muscle degeneration associated to torn rotator cuffs
Upregulated expression of anti-apoptotic genes in cisplatin-treated human tubular epithelial cells and down-regulated expression of cell-apoptotic genes [116]
Cooper, D.; Wang, C.; Patel, R.; Trujillo, A.; Patel, N.A.; Prather, J.; Gould, L.J.; Wu, M.H. Human adipose-derived stem cell conditioned media and exosomes containing MALAT1 promote human dermal fibroblast migration and ischemic wound healing. Adv. Wound Care 2018, 7, 299–308. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
Kimpton Hotel Enso, San Francisco Conceptualization, D.T. and L.O.; writing—original draft preparation, D.T.; writing—review and editing, L.O. and D.T.; funding acquisition, L.O. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
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Lee, Y.S.; Dutta, A. MicroRNAs in cancer. Annu. Rev. Pathol. 2009, 4, 199–227. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Tobacco Industry Interference (TII) Monitoring Report January 2022 Increased hepatocyte proliferation and reduced apoptosis [133]
Intratracheally/EVs produced by 10 × 10
Injection/200 μg total EV protein in 200 μL PBS
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2 and 8 µg total EV protein
Injection/150 μg of total EV protein
Wu, R.; Huang, C.; Wu, Q.; Jia, X.; Liu, M.; Xue, Z.; Qiu, Y.; Niu, X.; Wang, Y. Exosomes secreted by urine-derived stem cells improve stress urinary incontinence by promoting repair of pubococcygeus muscle injury in rats. Stem Cell Res. Ther. 2019, 10, 80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
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Almeria, C.; Weiss, R.; Roy, M.; Tripisciano, C.; Kasper, C.; Weber, V.; Egger, D. Hypoxia conditioned mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles induce increased vascular tube formation in vitro. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol. 2019, 7, 292. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed][Green Version]
Record, M.; Silvente-Poirot, S.; Poirot, M.; Wakelam, M. Extracellular vesicles: lipids as key components of their biogenesis and functions. J. Lipid Res. 2018, 59, 1316–1324. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
Nakamura, Y.; Miyaki, S.; Ishitobi, H.; Matsuyama, S.; Nakasa, T.; Kamei, N.; Akimoto, T.; Higashi, Y.; Ochi, M. Mesenchymal-stem-cell-derived exosomes accelerate skeletal muscle regeneration. FEBS Lett. 2015, 589, 1257–1265. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed][Green Version]
Canberra Critics Circle: 7 Great Inventions of the Modern Industrial Age Injection/100 µg of total EV protein in 30 μL PBS
EV-scaffold transplantation/40 μg total EV protein in 20 μL PBS
ExoQuick-TC ULTRA (EQULTRA-20TC-1, SBI)
Zhao, R.; Liang, H.; Clarke, E.; Jackson, C.; Xue, M. Inflammation in Chronic Wounds. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2016, 17, 2085. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
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/mouse; MSC-EVs: 400 × 10
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Forterre, A.; Jalabert, A.; Berger, E.; Baudet, M.; Chikh, K.; Errazuriz, E.; De Larichaudy, J.; Chanon, S.; Weiss-Gayet, M.; Hesse, A.M.; et al. Proteomic analysis of C2C12 myoblast and myotube exosome-like vesicles: a new paradigm for myoblast-myotube cross talk? PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e84153. [Google Scholar]
Differential centrifugation and ultracentrifugation (140,000× g)
particles/3 ml) for 5 days
As an alternative approach to injecting MSC-EVs to the cardiac defect, they can be encapsulated to hydrogels for controlled and targeted administration. Hence, sustain release profile and increased cardiac regeneration was noticed when human UCMSC-EVs were loaded in functional peptide hydrogels. Specifically, the EV/hydrogel complex improved the myocardial function by reducing inflammation, fibrosis and apoptosis, and by promoting angiogenesis in infarcted border zone of rat hearts [82].
Ultrafiltration and sucrose gradient ultracentrifugation (100,000× g)
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This research was funded by the EU Commission as Horizon 2020 project EVPRO [H2020-NMBP-TR-IND-2018] and the Irish Research Council Advanced Laureate Award, EVIC [IRCLA/2019/49].
. 2020; 9(4):991. Dimitrios, and Lorraine O’Driscoll. 2020. "Mesenchymal Stem Cell Derived Extracellular Vesicles for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine Applications"
Additionally, human placenta MSC-EVs have been shown to inhibit calcification of synthetic vascular grafts by immunomodulation and improving vascular performance and functionality and in a rat model of hyperlipidaemia [163]. Likewise, EVs isolated from ADMSCs limited the abnormal proliferation and migration of vascular smooth muscle cells, followed by neointimal hyperplasia in the setting of vein graft bypass surgery [164]. Administration of human UCMSC-EVs in a mouse model of hind-limb ischemia ameliorated severe ischemic injury, as revealed by increased limb perfusion and function [165]. With respect to tracheoesophageal diseases such as fistulas, ADMSC-EVs embedded in thermo-responsive hydrogels ensured the targeted delivery of EVs at the site of porcine oesophageal fistula; this, in turn, augmented healing. The proposed mechanism here involved the inhibition of myofibroblast proliferation and fibrosis, the decline of inflammatory response, and the enhancement of angiogenesis [166]. Finally, administration of mouse BMMSC-EVs improved the symptoms of ulcerative colitis in a dextran sodium sulfate-induced mouse model, by stimulating M2 macrophage polarisation and blocking inflammatory response [167].
Allogenic BMMSC-EVs locally administrated
Ranghino, A.; Bruno, S.; Bussolati, B.; Moggio, A.; DiMuccio, V.; Tapparo, M.; Biancone, L.; Gontero, P.; Frea, B.; Camussi, G. The effects of glomerular and tubular renal progenitors and derived extracellular vesicles on recovery from acute kidney injury. Stem Cell Res. Ther. 2017, 8, 24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
Zhou, Y.; Liu, S.; Zhao, M.; Wang, C.; Li, L.; Yuan, Y.; Li, L.; Liao, G.; Bresette, W.; Zhang, J.; et al. Injectable extracellular vesicle-released self-assembling peptide nanofiber hydrogel as an enhanced cell-free therapy for tissue regeneration. J. Control. Release 2019, 316, 93–104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Enhanced proliferation and migration of fibroblasts and tube formation by endothelial cells [149]
Hu, X.; Wu, R.; Shehadeh, L.A.; Zhou, Q.; Jiang, C.; Huang, X.; Zhang, L.; Gao, F.; Liu, X.-B.; Yu, H.; et al. Severe hypoxia exerts parallel and cell-specific regulation of gene expression and alternative splicing in human mesenchymal stem cells. BMC Genom. 2014, 15, 303. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
particles for each injection once a week for 4 weeks (5 injections)
While these studies related to EV biogenesis and characterisation are not all focussed on MSCs, it seems that MSC-EVs are also heterogeneous, carry cargo such as proteins, nucleic acids and lipids, and are involved in cell-to-cell communication.
/mouse; Fibroblasts-EVs: 230 × 10
Sustained release of MSC-EVs from PEG hydrogels protected against hepatic failure [140]
Injection / details not provided
Loeser, R.F.; Goldring, S.R.; Scanzello, C.R.; Goldring, M.B. Osteoarthritis: A disease of the joint as an organ. Arthritis Rheum. 2012, 64, 1697–1707. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
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Several studies have assessed the influence of MSC-EVs in models of chronic kidney damage (CDK) mainly caused by diabetes [124]. Human urinary MSC-EVs have been reported to prevent CKD progression, by inhibiting podocyte apoptosis and promoting vascular regeneration and cell survival in a rat model of streptozotocin-induced diabetic nephropathy [125]. Another study revealed an improvement of renal morphology with profound anti-apoptotic behaviour of tubular epithelial cells when urinary MSC-EVs were injected into diabetic mice [126]. Human BMMSC-EVs and human liver MSC-EVs inhibited fibrosis and prevented its progression in a mouse model of diabetic nephropathy mediated by miRNAs capable of down-regulating profibrotic genes [127]. Analogous observations were noticed upon administration of human liver MSC-EVs in a CKD model induced by aristolochic acid [128]. Murine BMMSC-EVs protected against renal injury both in vitro and in vivo by microRNA-dependent repair in CKD mice models of surgical 5/6 nephrectomy of the kidney tissue [129,130]. Furthermore, injection of human BMMSC-EVs repaired the damage to apical and basolateral membranes and mitochondria of kidney proximal tubules, and improved renal function in a cadmium medaka model resembling CKD due to long-term environmental exposure to heavy metal [131]. In a clinical trial in forty CKD patients stage III and IV (n = 20 administered MSC-EVs, n = 20 administered placebo) it was observed that MSC-EVs derived from umbilical cord are safe and were able to ameliorate the progression of CDK in grade III-IV CKD patients [132].
Kholia, S.; Sanchez, M.B.H.; Cedrino, M.; Papadimitriou, E.; Tapparo, M.; Deregibus, M.C.; Brizzi, M.F.; Tetta, C.; Camussi, G. Human liver stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles prevent aristolochic acid-induced kidney fibrosis. Front. Immunol. 2018, 9, 9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
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He, J.; Wang, Y.; Sun, S.; Yu, M.; Wang, C.; Pei, X.; Zhu, B.; Wu, J.; Zhao, W. Bone marrow stem cells-derived microvesicles protect against renal injury in the mouse remnant kidney model. Nephrology 2012, 17, 493–500. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Main Findings from Studies Evaluating These EVs
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via intramuscular injection after day 1 and 2
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The number of studies using MSC-EVs for the treatment of acute kidney injuries (AKI) and chronic kidney damage (CDK) is continuously increasing, suggesting this strategy may be a promising approach for kidney regeneration. Initially it was established that human BMMSC-EVs accelerated the recovery of injured tubular cells, stimulated cell proliferation, prevented apoptosis and supported functional recovery of glycerol-induced AKI [110]. The suggested route of MSC-EV action involved the delivery of genetic material—such as mRNAs and miRNAs—to injured renal cells, contributing to anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, anti-fibrotic, and pro-angiogenesis effects on AKI [111,112]. Another reported mechanism of renal repair in response to BMMSC-EVs treatment includes the horizontal transfer of human IGF-1 receptor mRNA, which is present in MSC-EVs, to tubular cells [113]. Moreover, administration of human and mice BMMSC-EVs in rat and mice AKI models, respectively, protected the animals from AKI and improved renal function; by inhibiting apoptosis and stimulating tubular epithelial cell proliferation [114,115]. In a cisplatin-induced toxic AKI mouse model, human BMMSC-EVs ameliorated renal function and morphology, and improved survival. Considering the mechanism responsible for this in vitro in cisplatin-treated human tubular epithelial cells, it was shown that the EVs up-regulated anti-apoptotic genes (B-cell lymphoma extra-large B-cell lymphoma 2 and baculoviral IAP repeat containing 8) and down-regulated genes that contribute in the execution-phase of cell apoptosis (caspase-1, caspase-8 and lymphotoxin alpha) [116]. A significant better EV efficacy followed by improved renal function was noticed when mice BMMSC-EVs were loaded to self-assembling peptide nanofiber hydrogels, for control and targeted release of EVs on the site of mice AKI models after ischaemia-reperfusion [117]. Aside from bone marrow, MSC-EVs from other tissues have been isolated and evaluated for renal regeneration. In one such study, human UCMSC-EVs induced in vitro and in vivo renal repair in rat AKI models (cisplatin-induced and unilateral), through reducing oxidative stress and cell apoptosis, promoting cell proliferation, and tubular cells de-differentiation [118,119]. Similar renal regeneration was observed when EVs derived from human Wharton’s Jelly MSCs were applied in AKI rat models. It was also reported that EVs improved renal function by enhancing tubular cell proliferation and reducing inflammation and apoptosis via mitochondrial fission [120,121]. EVs isolated from human glomerular MSCs and liver MSCs have also been credited with stimulating recovery after AKI [122,123].
Mao, G.; Zhang, Z.; Hu, S.; Zhang, Z.; Chang, Z.; Huang, Z.; Liao, W.; Kang, Y. Exosomes derived from miR-92a-3p-overexpressing human mesenchymal stem cells enhance chondrogenesis and suppress cartilage degradation via targeting WNT5A. Stem Cell Res. Ther. 2018, 9, 247. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
Total exosome isolation kit (Life Technologies)
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Yao, J.; Zheng, J.; Cai, J.; Zeng, K.; Zhou, C.; Zhang, J.; Li, S.; Li, H.; Chen, L.; He, L.; et al. Extracellular vesicles derived from human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells alleviate rat hepatic ischemia-reperfusion injury by suppressing oxidative stress and neutrophil inflammatory response. FASEB J. 2018, 33, 1695–1710. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
Improved pulmonary vascular permeability through the activation of proteins and pathways linked to cytoskeletal rearrangement [162]
Mardpour, S.; Ghanian, M.H.; Abandansari, H.S.; Mardpour, S.; Nazari, A.; Shekari, F.; Baharvand, H. Hydrogel-mediated sustained systemic delivery of mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles improves hepatic regeneration in chronic liver failure. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2019, 11, 37421–37433. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Articular cartilage has limited intrinsic regenerative capacity upon injury and if poorly healed may lead to osteoarthritis (OA); a severe disease accompanied with loss of joint function and devastating pain [95]. MSC-EVs from various cell sources provide new insights for the development of cell-free therapies for the treatment of cartilage injuries and OA. The therapeutic efficacy of MSC-EVs over their cells of origin for the treatment of OA was highlighted in a comparison study using amniotic fluid MSCs and their derived EVs. EV-treated defects showed superior pain tolerance level and improved histological scores than the MSC-treated defects [96]. Furthermore, human BMMSC-EVs have been reported to promote in vitro cartilage regeneration by triggering the production of collagen type II and proteoglycans of chondrocytes isolated from OA patients [97]; both of which are extracellular matrix (ECM) components essential for the proper cartilage repair [98]. It is widely accepted that OA is associated with cartilage degradation mediated mainly by Wnt5A, a non-canonical Wnt protein, which can activate matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and reduce the formation of cartilage ECM [99]. Human BMMSC-EVs modified to be enriched with miR-92a-3p have been reported to suppress cartilage degradation and promote cartilage repair in vitro and in an in vivo OA mouse model, as a result of miR-92a-3p targeting Wnt5A [100]. Furthermore, pre-conditioning of rat MSCs with transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ) enhanced the quantities of miR-135b in the resulting EVs, which stimulated chondrocyte proliferation in vitro through specificity protein 1 (Sp1) regulation and cartilage tissue repair in a rat model of OA [101].
Increased myocardial viability and inhibited adverse remodelling [72]
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Injection/200 µg of total EV protein in 200 μL PBS
particles in 2 μL PBS
Reduced oxidative stress and renal tubular cell apoptosis, increased renal cell proliferation [118]
Sucrose gradient ultracentrifugation (200,000× g)
As extensively review by the EV research community, according to their cellular origin and the mechanism of secretion, EVs carry somewhat distinct surface markers [21]. Tetraspanin proteins such as CD9, CD81, and CD63 are enriched in the membrane of exosomes and so they are often used to help quality small EVs as exosomes. Furthermore, small EVs may be distinguished by the presence of proteins involved in their biogenesis, including annexin, flotillin, auxiliary proteins (ALIX, TSG101, VPS4), components of the endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT), GTPase and heat shock proteins (HSP70 and HSP90) [19]. In contrast, CD40 ligand and annexin A1 are associated with medium- and large-size EVs [31,32], whereas apoptotic bodies carry annexin V [33]. Additionally, EV sub-populations contain a range of forms of lipids: cholesterols, diglycerides, sphingolipids (including sphingomyelin and ceramide), phospholipids, and glycerophospholipids, which are key components for the structure, function and biogenesis of EVs [34]. It has been well established that EVs also carry nucleic acids that can be transferred to secondary cells, affecting their cellular processes [17]. Among these, for example, the mRNA content of some EVs has been suggested to significantly influence the biological function of neighbouring cells, such as cell differentiation, transcription, cell proliferation and immune regulation. Similarly, many studies have reported miRNA within EVs being transferred to recipient cells and subsequently altering the gene expression and phenotype of those cells e.g., modulating cycle, apoptosis, migration, inflammation, and neo-angiogenesis [35,36,37,38].
Human dental pulp MSCs
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Choi, J.S.; Cho, W.L.; Choi, Y.J.; Kim, J.D.; Park, H.-A.; Kim, S.Y.; Park, J.H.; Jo, D.-G.; Cho, Y.W. Functional recovery in photo-damaged human dermal fibroblasts by human adipose-derived stem cell extracellular vesicles. J. Extracell. Vesicles 2019, 8, 1565885. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed][Green Version]
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BMMSC-EVs loaded to self-assembling peptide nanofiber hydrogel, showed better EV efficacy and improved renal function [117]
Modification of rat BMMSC-EVs with miR-133b activated the ERK1/2, STAT3 pathway, which resulted to enhanced neuron preservation [64]
Tibialis anterior muscle damage
MSC-EVs loaded into decalcified bone matrix scaffolds stimulated neo-vascularization and bone formation [93]
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Injection/160 μg total EV protein in 160 μL PBS at wound sites and 40 μg total EV protein in 40 μL PBS at wound beds
TNFα-primed ADMSC-EVs enhanced proliferation and differentiation of osteoblastic cells by increasing the
Satelittogel Bandar Togel Online Paling Ba Ultrafiltration and ExoQuick-TC kit (System Biosciences)
Received: 24 March 2020 / Revised: 9 April 2020 / Accepted: 14 April 2020 / Published: 16 April 2020
DATA RESULT KELUARAN TOGEL SGP HK SYDNEY LIVE 4D HARI INI. datahksgp.com adalah situs seputar data keluaran angka togel 4d yang penayanganya secara live. keluaran togel.
Wang, Y.; Yu, D.; Liu, Z.; Zhou, F.; Dai, J.; Wu, B.; Zhou, J.; Heng, B.C.; Zou, X.H.; Ouyang, H.; et al. Exosomes from embryonic mesenchymal stem cells alleviate osteoarthritis through balancing synthesis and degradation of cartilage extracellular matrix. Stem Cell Res. Ther. 2017, 8, 189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
Hasil Keluaran Togel Terlengkap dan Tercepat EV-scaffold transplantation/10 μg of total EV protein in 1 mL PBS
Grade III-IV CKD (clinical trial)
Table 2. List of clinical trials using MSC-EVs against tissue injuries *.
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Hypoxia-elicited BMMSC-EVs enhanced the cardioprotective actions of EVs [81]
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Human amniotic fluid-derived MSCs
for 72 h) showed higher cardiac regeneration in a rat MI model than BMMSCs-EVs isolated under normoxia conditions; the mechanism reported as responsible was by increasing angiogenesis in the site of infract region [79]. Moreover, hypoxia-reconditioning murine and rat BMMSC-EVs (at either 1% O
BMMSC-EVs loaded into tricalcium phosphate scaffolds promoted osteogenesis activity and bone regeneration [92]
3. EV Isolation Methods
Bone regeneration (in vitro)
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Human amniotic fluid MSCs
EV-scaffold transplantation/100 μg of total EV protein in 1 mL PBS
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Injection/100 μg of total EV protein
Differential centrifugation and ultrafiltration
expression of Wnt-3a [86]
Enhanced hepatic regeneration via inhibition of apoptosis of hepatic cells, suppression of inflammatory and attenuation of the oxidative stress response [134]
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Increased angiogenesis and bone formation [83]
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Osteochondral explants from arthroplasty patients treated with ADMSC-EVs
Differential centrifugation, ultracentrifugation (100,000× g) and ultrafiltration
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Increased tubular cell proliferation and dedifferentiation [119]
SATELITTOGEL LINK ALTERNATIF LOGIN SATELITTOGEL DAFTAR Hypoxia pre-conditioning of human BMMSCs has been reported to enhance cells’ biological activities in vitro [77], whilst showed to improve the effectiveness of Cynomolgous monkey BMMSCs when implanted as a treatment of MI in monkeys [78]. Interestingly, hypoxia positively influenced the therapeutic efficacy of the secreted EVs. Hypoxia-elicited human BMMSC-EVs (1% O
EV-hydrogel injection/350 μg of total EV protein in 400 μL PEG hydrogel solution
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Mao, Q.; Nguyen, P.D.; Shanti, R.M.; Shi, S.; Shakoori, P.; Zhang, Q.; Le, A.D. Gingiva-derived mesenchymal stem cell-extracellular vesicles activate Schwann cell repair phenotype and promote nerve regeneration. Tissue Eng. Part A 2019, 25, 887–900. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
Enhanced muscle regeneration/protection through NRG1-mediated signals [146]
Differential centrifugation and sequential ultracentrifugation (up to 110,000× g)
Aside from their reported beneficial therapeutic effect on the mentioned tissues and organs, MSC-EVs have been examined for their ability to restore or, indeed, improve the performance of many other organs and body systems -such as lungs, blood vessels, oesophagus and bowel- in case of injuries or diseases. For instance, it was reported that human placenta MSC-EVs could attenuate injuries (upon lipopolysaccharide stimulation) caused in lung cells in vitro [160]. In vivo, swine BMMSC-EVs improved lung function in a pig model of influenza virus-induced acute lung injury [161]. Furthermore, human BMMSC-EVs have been shown to alleviate pulmonary vascular permeability and lung injury induced by haemorrhagic shock and trauma in a mouse model, through the activation of proteins and pathways linked to cytoskeletal rearrangement of vascular permeability [162].
Twin Lmb Satellite Dishes Tv Broadcasts Stock Photo 2286058507 Injection/100 µg of total EV protein in 100 µL PBS
Enhanced muscle regeneration through the synergistic effect of EVs and soluble proteins [143]
Injection/100 μg of total EV protein in 1 mL medium 199
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Infusion/400 µg of total EV protein
Enhanced wound healing by regulating the collagen distribution secreted by fibroblasts in the early and late stage of wound healing [152]
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Photo-damaged dermal fibroblasts in vitro)
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Harimau bisa diselamatkan dari kepunahan Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are being extensively investigated for their potential in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. However, recent evidence suggests that the beneficial effects of MSCs may be manifest by their released extracellular vesicles (EVs); typically not requiring the administration of MSCs. This evidence, predominantly from pre-clinical in vitro and in vivo studies, suggests that MSC-EVs may exhibit substantial therapeutic properties in many pathophysiological conditions, potentially restoring an extensive range of damaged or diseased tissues and organs. These benefits of MSC EVs are apparently found, regardless of the anatomical or body fluid origin of the MSCs (and include e.g., bone marrow, adipose tissue, umbilical cord, urine, etc). Furthermore, early indications suggest that the favourable effects of MSC-EVs could be further enhanced by modifying the way in which the donor MSCs are cultured (for example, in hypoxic compared to normoxic conditions, in 3D compared to 2D culture formats) and/or if the EVs are subsequently bio-engineered (for example, loaded with specific cargo). So far, few human clinical trials of MSC-EVs have been conducted and questions remain unanswered on whether the heterogeneous population of EVs is beneficial or some specific sub-populations, how best we can culture and scale-up MSC-EV production and isolation for clinical utility, and in what format they should be administered. However, as reviewed here, there is now substantial evidence supporting the use of MSC-EVs in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine and further research to establish how best to exploit this approach for societal and economic benefit is warranted.
B&B Hotel Köln Frechen in Frechen, Germany from $32: Deals, Reviews, Photos © 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license D.; O’Driscoll, L. Mesenchymal Stem Cell Derived Extracellular Vesicles for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine Applications.
Akt-modified MSC-EVs promoted endothelial cell proliferation, migration, tube-like structure formation, and blood vessel formation [73]
Improved renal function by enhancing tubular cell proliferation and reduced inflammation and apoptosis via mitochondrial fission [120,121]
Used 2021 Jeep Wrangler Unlimited For Sale at Leith Lincoln Improved sciatic function index, enhanced histomorphometric repair in nerve regeneration and increased GAP-43 expression [50]
Injection/EVs derived from 2 × 10
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particles in 20 μL PBS
Injection/100 μg of total EV protein in 200 μL PBS
The Waterstonu0027s evaporatorium of Ceraphronidae (Ceraphronoidea, Hymenoptera): A morphological barcode to a cryptic taxon 9, no. 4: 991. that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.
Zhang, S.; Chuah, S.J.; Lai, R.C.; Hui, J.H.P.; Lim, S.K.; Toh, W.S. MSC exosomes mediate cartilage repair by enhancing proliferation, attenuating apoptosis and modulating immune reactivity. Biomaterial 2018, 156, 16–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
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EVs are heterogeneous lipid bilayer-surrounded vesicles secreted by all cell types, not only MSCs, and act as mediators of intercellular communication. EVs are involved in numerous physiological and pathophysiological biological processes, including modulating immune responses, homeostasis maintenance, coagulation, inflammation, angiogenesis, and cancer progression [14,15,16,17]. According to their size, dimension and origin, they can be classified in many ways, with the preferred terms now being small EVs, medium-sized EVs, and large EVs [18,19].
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Increased chondrocyte proliferation, reduced apoptosis, regulated inflammation and matrix homeostasis [102,103,104]
Wei, Y.; Wu, Y.; Zhao, R.; Zhang, K.; Midgley, A.C.; Kong, D.; Li, Z.; Zhao, Q. MSC-derived sEVs enhance patency and inhibit calcification of synthetic vascular grafts by immunomodulation in a rat model of hyperlipidemia. Biomaterial 2019, 204, 13–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
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MSCs at 1-day post-injury
Figliolini, F.; Ranghino, A.; Grange, C.; Cedrino, M.; Tapparo, M.; Cavallari, C.; Rossi, A.; Togliatto, G.; Femminò, S.; Gugliuzza, M.V.; et al. Extracellular vesicles from adipose stem cells prevent muscle damage and inflammation in a mouse model of hind limb ischemia: role of Neuregulin-1. Arter. Thromb. Vasc. Boil. 2019, 40, 239–254. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Reduced CDK progression through miRNAs capable of down-regulating profibrotic genes [128]
Liang, B.; Liang, J.-M.; Ding, J.-N.; Xu, J.; Xu, J.-G.; Chai, Y. Dimethyloxaloylglycine-stimulated human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes enhance bone regeneration through angiogenesis by targeting the AKT/mTOR pathway. Stem Cell Res. Ther. 2019, 10, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed][Green Version]
As reviewed here, due to their intrinsic therapeutic capacity EVs derived from MSCs—of a range of origins— represent a powerful tool for the treatment of many injuries and diseases, opening multiple novel avenues for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine strategies. While the number of clinical studies is limited to date (Table 2), there is evidence to show that the beneficial effects of MSC-EVs could be further enhanced by bioengineering and genetic modification; stimulation with a variety of different biophysical and biochemical stimuli; drug encapsulation; and nanomaterial science.
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iPSC-EVs incorporated with in situ hydrogel glue could integrate with native cartilage matrix and promote cell deposition at cartilage defect [107]
Pelizzo, G.; Avanzini, M.; Cornaglia, A.I.; Silvestri, A.; Mantelli, M.; Travaglino, P.; Croce, S.; Romano, P.; Avolio, L.; Iacob, G.; et al. Extracellular vesicles derived from mesenchymal cells: perspective treatment for cutaneous wound healing in pediatrics. Regen. Med. 2018, 13, 385–394. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
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0.1, 1, and 10 μg total EV protein in 1 mL PBS
Soul sisters necklace, double heart necklace, soul sisters gift, light Increased angiogenesis, osteogenesis and bone formation [84]
Platt, J.; Cascalho, M. New and old technologies for organ replacement. Curr. Opin. Organ Transplant. 2013, 18, 179–185. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed][Green Version]
Injection/30 µg of total EV protein
Liu, X.; Yang, Y.; Li, Y.; Niu, X.; Zhao, B.; Wang, Y.; Bao, C.; Xie, Z.; Lin, Q.; Zhu, L. Integration of stem cell-derived exosomes with in situ hydrogel glue as a promising tissue patch for articular cartilage regeneration. Nanoscale 2017, 9, 4430–4438. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
The nervous system is a crucial component of the body and any injury or a disease to it can cause serious or potentially lethal consequences. Nerve repair has long remained a significant objective in regenerative medicine, due to the physiological system complexity and the limited healing capacity [49]. A plethora of strategies have been employed to correct peripheral nerve injuries. In one such study, EVs derived from rat bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMMSCs), were reported to stimulate nerve regeneration after sciatic peripheral nerve crush injury in a rat model. The benefit from the EV was manifest as improved sciatic function index after injury, enhanced histomorphometric repair in nerve regeneration, and increased expression of growth associated protein 43 (GAP43), a marker of axon regeneration [50]. Similarly, peripheral nerve recovery was noticed when EV from human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells (UCMSCs) were applied in the site of sciatic nerve defect in rats. EVs aggregated at the site of the nerve injury, prompted the generation of axons and Schwann cells that surrounded individual axons, reduced denervated muscle atrophy and modulated inflammation via down-regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines (interleukin [IL]-6 and IL-1β) and up-regulation anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-10) [51]. Another study suggested that EVs from rat adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (ADMSCs) promoted peripheral nerve regeneration and neurite growth in sciatic nerve defects, assumed to be through Schwann cell (SC) modulation [52]. Mechanistically, Schwann cells stimulation and proliferation in the damaged neurons relies on the perinuclear location of ADSC-EVs and their accumulation in vesicular-like structures within the Schwann, which indicates an endocytosis-mediated internalization pathway [53]. A more detailed mechanism of peripheral nerve regeneration upon treatment with gingiva MSC-EVs illustrated that the proliferation and migration of Schwann cells occur mainly via the activation of c-Jun N-terminal Kinase (JNK) pathway and the up-regulation of c-Jun, Notch1, glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), and SRY (sex determining region Y)-box 2 (Sox2) characteristic genes of de-differentiation or repair phenotype of Schwann cells [54].
Used 2019 CHEVROLET CAMARO 2SS for sale in SAN ANTONIO Herein, we review current advancements of the therapeutic potential of MSC-EVs in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine (Figure 1), considering the molecular mechanisms suggested for the MSC-EV action where possible.
Ma, Y.; Dong, L.; Zhou, D.; Li, L.; Zhang, W.; Zhen, Y.; Wang, T.; Su, J.; Chen, D.; Mao, C.; et al. Extracellular vesicles from human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells improve nerve regeneration after sciatic nerve transection in rats. J. Cell. Mol. Med. 2019, 23, 2822–2835. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed][Green Version]
Increased collagen synthesis and angiogenesis [150]
Riazifar, M.; Mohammadi, M.R.; Pone, E.J.; Yeri, A.; Lässer, C.; Segaliny, A.I.; McIntyre, L.L.; Shelke, G.; Hutchins, E.; Hamamoto, A.; et al. Stem cell-derived exosomes as nanotherapeutics for autoimmune and neurodegenerative disorders. ACS Nano 2019, 13, 6670–6688. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Yan, L.; Wu, X. Exosomes produced from 3D cultures of umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells in a hollow-fiber bioreactor show improved osteochondral regeneration activity. Cell Boil. Toxicol. 2019, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
Enhanced oesophageal fistula healing through targeted delivery of EVs embedded in thermo-responsive hydrogels [166]
Can We Count on Forest Carbon Credits? Increased axonal density and synaptophysin-positive areas along the ischemic boundary zone of the cortex and striatum [58]
Injection/200 μL derived from 1 × 10
Human Wharton’s Jelly MSCs
5. Conclusions and Future Perspectives
Li, C.; Jiao, G.; Wu, W.; Wang, H.; Ren, S.; Zhang, L.; Zhou, H.; Liu, H.; Chen, Y. Exosomes from bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells inhibit neuronal apoptosis and promote motor function recovery via the Wnt/beta-catenin signaling pathway. Cell Transplant 2019, 28, 1373–1383. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Injection/45 μg total EV protein in 30 μL PBS
As a preventative measure, EVs isolated from human ADMSCs have been tested as a means to prevent muscle injuries related to torn rotator cuffs. Here, MSC-EV treatment prevented the atrophy, fatty infiltration, inflammation, and vascularisation of muscles in a rat model of torn rotator cuffs and, also, increased the myofiber regeneration and biomechanical properties of the muscles in rotator cuffs [144]. Furthermore, human urine-derived MSC-EVs promoted repair of pubococcygeus muscle injury in rat models of stress urinary incontinence, through stimulating phosphorylation of extracellular-regulated protein kinases and the activation, proliferation, and differentiation of muscle satellite cells [145]. Additionally, human ASC-EVs have recently been shown to prevent muscle damage in a mouse model of critical hindlimb ischemia, mainly through neuregulin 1 protein (NRG1)-mediated signals playing a crucial role in angiogenesis, prevention of inflammation, and muscle protection [146].
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The Lipopeptide MALP-2 Promotes Collateral Growth
I went on a pretty technical solo hike and someone signed me out of the visitor sheet. If something bad happened this could have delayed Rangers looking for me. EV or EV-hydrogel injection/80 μg of total EV protein in 15 μL PBS or 80 μg of total EV protein in 15 μL of hydrogel solution
Hypoxia-elicited BMMSC-EVs prevented cardiomyocyte apoptosis through the enrichment of miR-125b-5p [80]
Shen, B.; Liu, J.; Zhang, F.; Wang, Y.; Qin, Y.; Zhou, Z.; Qiu, J.; Fan, Y. CCR2 Positive Exosome released by mesenchymal stem cells suppresses macrophage functions and alleviates ischemia/reperfusion-induced renal injury. Stem Cells Int. 2016, 2016, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
lung injury induced by haemorrhagic shock and trauma
Reduced abnormal proliferation and migration of vascular smooth muscle cell [164]
Amazon.com: Coredy 1 Pcs Bluetooth Tracker Tag, Works with Apple Find My (iOS Only), Key Finder and Item Locator with Electronics Light Indicator, Global Signal Source GPS Finders for Luggage, Travel Essentials : Malliaras, K.; Zhang, Y.; Seinfeld, J.; Galang, G.; Tseliou, E.; Cheng, K.; Sun, B.; Aminzadeh, M.; Marbán, E. Cardiomyocyte proliferation and progenitor cell recruitment underlie therapeutic regeneration after myocardial infarction in the adult mouse heart. EMBO Mol. Med. 2013, 5, 191–209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
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Injection/10 μg total EV protein in 100 μL PBS
Table 1. MSC-EVs in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine applications.
Senyo, S.; Steinhauser, M.L.; Pizzimenti, C.L.; Yang, V.K.; Cai, L.; Wang, M.; Wu, T.-D.; Guerquin-Kern, J.-L.; Lechene, C.P.; Lee, R.T. Mammalian heart renewal by pre-existing cardiomyocytes. Nature 2012, 493, 433–436. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
Zhang, Y.; Liu, Y.; Liu, H.; Tang, W.H. Exosomes: biogenesis, biologic function and clinical potential. Cell Biosci. 2019, 9, 19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Bishop, E.; Mostafa, S.; Pakvasa, M.; Luu, H.H.; Lee, M.J.; Wolf, J.M.; Ameer, G.A.; He, T.-C.; Reid, R.R. 3-D bioprinting technologies in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine: Current and future trends. Genes Dis. 2017, 4, 185–195. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Reduced infarct size [71]
Zhou, Y.; Xu, H.; Xu, W.; Wang, B.; Wu, H.; Tao, Y.; Zhang, B.; Wang, M.; Mao, F.; Yan, Y.; et al. Exosomes released by human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells protect against cisplatin-induced renal oxidative stress and apoptosis in vivo and in vitro. Stem Cell Res. Ther. 2013, 4, 34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
DVD01 Digital Satellite Receiver With DVD Player User Manual 2 of 2 VTech Telecommunications Figley, S.A.; Khosravi, R.; Legasto, J.M.; Tseng, Y.-F.; Fehlings, M.G. Characterization of vascular disruption and blood-spinal cord barrier permeability following traumatic spinal cord injury. J. Neurotrauma 2014, 31, 541–552. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed][Green Version]
BMMSC-EVs modified with dimethyloxaloylglycin enhanced bone regeneration through Akt/mTOR pathway activation and angiogenesis stimulation [85]
Cossu, G.; Birchall, M.; Brown, T.; De Coppi, P.; Culme-Seymour, E.; Gibbon, S.; Hitchcock, J.; Mason, C.; Montgomery, J.; Morris, S.; et al. Lancet Commission: stem cells and regenerative medicine. Lancet 2018, 391, 883–910. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
A challenge for MSC-EV in regenerative medicine, particularly when considering towards clinical utility, is the lack of standardisation in EV isolation methods. Of course, this is not unique to MSC-EVs; there are many options but no standardised method for the isolation and purification of EVs. A world-wide survey by the International Society for Extracellular Vesicles (ISEV) [39], considering EV isolation from any and all sourced showed ultracentrifugation-based methods to be most commonly used, although a range of other approaches have been taken to overcome challenges regarding ultracentrifugation including the need for an ultracentrifuge, low-throughput of samples, and potential damage to EVs caused by high-speed centrifugation [40,41]. To this end, alternative methods such as filtration/ultrafiltration, size exclusion chromatography, immunoprecipitation, and precipitation with reagents such as PEG have been utilised, with varying degrees of efficacy in terms of purity and quantity [42]. Thus, combinations of two or more isolation methods are gaining popularity in order to increase EV purity [43]. Moreover, EVs can be modified to enhance their therapeutic potential. Thus, EVs can be incorporated with elements including drugs, antibodies, proteins and RNA for targeted delivery and with molecules such as lipophilic dyes and amino-reactive fluorophores for in vitro and in vivo traceability. In that cases, novel EV-like approaches have been generated such as bio-engineered EVs, EV-mimetic nanovesicles and EV-based semi-synthetic vesicles, as described and reviewed by others [44,45,46,47,48]. Specifically in relation to MSC-EVs, a range of methods of EV isolation from different sources and for different applications to address clinical problems (in the nervous system, heart, bone, cartilage, kidney, liver, muscle, wounds, and other tissues/organs) have been reported, as summarised in Table 1.
Ultrafiltration and gradient ultracentrifugation (100,000× g)
Zhu, L.-P.; Tian, T.; Wang, J.-Y.; He, J.-N.; Chen, T.; Pan, M.; Xu, L.; Zhang, H.-X.; Qiu, X.-T.; Li, C.-C.; et al. Hypoxia-elicited mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes facilitates cardiac repair through miR-125b-mediated prevention of cell death in myocardial infarction. Theranostics 2018, 8, 6163–6177. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Notorious Hacker Is Selling Passport Information Of 34 Million Indonesians To The Dark Web In studies applying human embryonic MSC-EVs in rat and mouse models with osteochondral defects, it was noted that osteochondral regeneration was mediated through distinct well-orchestrated mechanisms, such as by enhancing chondrocyte proliferation; attenuating apoptosis; and regulating immune reactivity in the site of the injury; by balancing the synthesis and degradation of cartilage ECM and by restoring matrix homeostasis [102,103,104,105].
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Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-induced liver injury
Madeddu, P.; Urbanek, K.; Kajstura, J.; Yan, S.; Finato, N.; Bussani, R.; Nadal-Ginard, B.; Silvestri, F.; Leri, A.; Beltrami, C.A.; et al. Evidence that human cardiac myocytes divide after myocardial infarction. New Engl. J. Med. 2001, 344, 1750–1757. [Google Scholar]
Huang, C.-C.; Narayanan, R.; Alapati, S.; Ravindran, S. Exosomes as biomimetic tools for stem cell differentiation: Applications in dental pulp tissue regeneration. Biomaterial 2016, 111, 103–115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed][Green Version]
Enhanced recovery of injured tubular cells, enhanced tubular cell proliferation, reduced apoptosis [110]
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Catalano, M.; O’Driscoll, L. Inhibiting extracellular vesicles formation and release: a review of EV inhibitors. J. Extracell. Vesicles 2019, 9, 1703244. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
Zhang, B.; Wang, M.; Gong, A.; Zhang, X.; Wu, X.; Zhu, Y.; Shi, H.; Wu, L.; Zhu, W.; Qian, H.; et al. HucMSC-exosome mediated-Wnt4 signaling is required for cutaneous wound healing. STEM CELLS 2015, 33, 2158–2168. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Injection/100 μg total EV protein in 500 μL PBS
particles in 500 μL PBS
Enhanced renal function through increased tubular cell proliferation and inhibition of apoptosis [123]
EV-scaffold transplantation/100 μg or 200 μg of total EV protein
EV-scaffold transplantation/details not provided
Injection/30 μg of total EV protein in 200 μL PBS
UCMSCs cultured in a bioreactor resulted in a higher yield of EVs and superior therapeutic efficiency [106]
BMMSC-EVs modified with miR-92a-3p, suppressed cartilage degradation by targeting the WNT5A and promoted cartilage repair [100]
Photo of ANEMOS (IMO: 7901265, MMSI: 240483600, Callsign: SVCW2) taken by haroship Zhang, Y.; Chopp, M.; Meng, Y.; Katakowski, M.; Xin, H.; Mahmood, A.; Xiong, Y. Effect of exosomes derived from multipluripotent mesenchymal stromal cells on functional recovery and neurovascular plasticity in rats after traumatic brain injury. J. Neurosurg. 2015, 122, 856–867. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
Neointimal hyperplasia (in vitro)
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Significant better wound healing upon treatment with ADMSC-EVs [155]
DATA TOGEL SGP HK SYDNEY LIVE DATA SGP 45 DATA HK Reduced infiltration of neutrophils and oxidative stress in hepatic tissue [139]
Enhanced renal recovery [122]
Enhanced periodontal ligament cell migration, proliferation and periodontal regeneration [89]
Tan, C.Y.; Lai, R.C.; Wong, W.; Dan, Y.Y.; Lim, S.K.; Ho, H.K. Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes promote hepatic regeneration in drug-induced liver injury models. Stem Cell Res. Ther. 2014, 5, 76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed][Green Version]
Cortical calvaria bone defect
Increased renoprotection activity mediated by the transfer of the mRNA for IGF-1 receptor to tubular cells through the MSC-EVs [113]
Increased production of collagen type II and proteoglycans in chondrocytes isolated from OA patients [97]
Mellows, B.; Mitchell, R.; Antonioli, M.; Kretz, O.; Chambers, D.; Zeuner, M.-T.; Denecke, B.; Musante, L.; Ramachandra, D.L.; Debacq-Chainiaux, F.; et al. Protein and molecular characterization of a clinically compliant amniotic fluid stem cell-derived extracellular vesicle fraction capable of accelerating muscle regeneration through enhancement of angiogenesis. Stem Cells Dev. 2017, 26, 1316–1333. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed][Green Version]
Generation of axons and Schwann cells, reduction of denervated muscle atrophy and modulation of inflammation [51]
Endogenous myocardial repair after damage is very slow and is dependent on the limited self-division of pre-existing cardiomyocytes and the recruitment and differentiation of resident cardiac stem cells [68,69,70]. The exogenous cell-free approach of using MSC-EVs therapeutically has emerged to address the insufficient responses to myocardial damage typically achievable by endogenous mechanisms. Initial studies established that human embryonic-derived MSC-EVs could reduce infarct size in a mouse model of myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury (MI) [71], through the activation of the PI3K/Akt signalling pathway, which increased myocardial viability and inhibited adverse remodelling [72]. Taken into consideration this observation, human UCMSCs were subsequently transfected with Akt, which was found to be at high levels in their released EVs. Compared to the non-modified human UCMSC-EVs, this Akt-carrying human UCMSC-EVs complex further accelerated endothelial cell proliferation, migration and tube-like structure formation in vitro and blood vessel formation in vivo [73].
Adamiak, M.; Cheng, G.; Bobis-Wozowicz, S.; Zhao, L.; Kedracka-Krok, S.; Samanta, A.; Karnas, E.; Xuan, Y.-T.; Skupien-Rabian, B.; Chen, X.; et al. Induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)–derived extracellular vesicles are safer and more effective for cardiac repair than iPSCs. Circ. Res. 2018, 122, 296–309. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Hu, L.; Wang, J.; Zhou, X.; Xiong, Z.; Zhao, J.; Yu, R.; Huang, F.; Zhang, H.; Chen, L. Exosomes derived from human adipose mensenchymal stem cells accelerates cutaneous wound healing via optimizing the characteristics of fibroblasts. Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 32993. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
4.9. The Regenerative Effect of MSC-EVs on Various Tissues
Sucrose gradient ultracentrifugation (350,000× g) and ultracentrifugation (100,000× g)
Han, C.; Sun, X.; Liu, L.; Jiang, H.; Shen, Y.; Xu, X.; Li, J.; Zhang, G.; Huang, J.; Lin, Z.; et al. Exosomes and their therapeutic potentials of stem cells. Stem Cells Int. 2015, 2016, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
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Blaho, V.A.; Hla, T. Regulation of mammalian physiology, development, and disease by the sphingosine 1-phosphate and lysophosphatidic acid receptors. Chem. Rev. 2011, 111, 6299–6320. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
Cartilage regeneration (in vitro)
Electrical Channel Images, Stock Photos & Vectors Injection/500 μg of total EV protein in 1 mL PBS
mesenchymal stem cells; extracellular vesicles; tissue damage; tissue engineering and regeneration; regenerative medicine
Zhang, M.; Jin, K.; Gao, L.; Zhang, Z.; Li, F.; Zhou, F.; Zhang, L. Methods and technologies for exosome isolation and characterization. Small Methods 2018, 2, 1800021. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Ludwig, A.-K.; Giebel, B. Exosomes: Small vesicles participating in intercellular communication. Int. J. Biochem. Cell Boil. 2012, 44, 11–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Arslan, F.; Lai, R.C.; Smeets, M.B.; Akeroyd, L.; Choo, A.; Aguor, E.N.E.; Timmers, L.; Van Rijen, H.V.; Doevendans, P.A.; Pasterkamp, G.; et al. Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes increase ATP levels, decrease oxidative stress and activate PI3K/Akt pathway to enhance myocardial viability and prevent adverse remodeling after myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury. Stem Cell Res. 2013, 10, 301–312. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed][Green Version]
Du, Y.; Li, D.; Han, C.; Wu, H.; Xu, L.; Zhang, M.; Zhang, J.; Chen, X. Exosomes from human-induced pluripotent stem cell–derived mesenchymal stromal cells (hiPSC-MSCs) protect liver against hepatic ischemia/ reperfusion injury via activating sphingosine kinase and sphingosine-1-phosphate signaling pathway. Cell. Physiol. Biochem. 2017, 43, 611–625. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Sequential ultracentrifugation (110,000× g)
Reduced neuronal apoptosis through the activation of the Wnt/β-catenin signalling pathway [63]
cells in 120 μL PBS ((T-CD133
Injection/100 μg of total EV protein per kg per dose (2 doses)
CRISPR/Cas9 Epigenome Editing Potential for Rare Imprinting Diseases: A Review
SINDOgrafis: Lembar Daftar Tugas Misi ke Bulan Terjual Rp11 Miliar Zakrzewski, W.; Dobrzyński, M.; Szymonowicz, M.; Rybak, Z. Stem cells: past, present, and future. Stem Cell Res. Ther. 2019, 10, 68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Qin, Y.; Wang, L.; Gao, Z.; Chen, G.; Zhang, C. Bone marrow stromal/stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles regulate osteoblast activity and differentiation in vitro and promote bone regeneration in vivo. Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 21961. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.
Wang, R.; Xu, B.; Xu, H. TGF-beta1 promoted chondrocyte proliferation by regulating Sp1 through MSC-exosomes derived miR-135b. Cell Cycle 2018, 17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
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Hosseini-Farahabadi, S.; Geetha-Loganathan, P.; Fu, K.; Nimmagadda, S.; Yang, H.J.; Richman, J.M. Dual functions for WNT5A during cartilage development and in disease. Matrix Boil. 2013, 32, 252–264. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Improved fracture healing in CD9
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Total Exosome isolation reagent kit (Invitrogen)
2. EV Biogenesis and Characterisation
Jeppesen, D.; Fenix, A.M.; Franklin, J.L.; Higginbotham, J.N.; Zhang, Q.; Zimmerman, L.J.; Liebler, D.C.; Ping, J.; Liu, Q.; Evans, R.; et al. Reassessment of exosome composition. Cell 2019, 177, 428–445.e18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed][Green Version]
The real face of Studio Yukiko, the studio behind Berlinu0027s exciting magazines like CURA Magazine and Flaneur Magazine Li, W.; Liu, Y.; Zhang, P.; Tang, Y.; Zhou, M.; Jiang, W.; Zhang, X.; Wu, G.; Zhou, Y. Tissue-engineered bone immobilized with human adipose stem cells-derived exosomes promotes bone regeneration. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2018, 10, 5240–5254. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
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Tangential flow filtration and chromatography
Improved renal function by repairing the damage to apical and basolateral membranes and mitochondria of kidney proximal tubules [131]
Cerebral artery stroke (in vitro)
Increased myelination in the spinal cord of treated mice and improved motor function [65]
EV-scaffold transplantation/100 μg of total EV protein in 100 μL PBS
Matsukura, T.; Inaba, C.; Weygant, E.A.; Kitamura, D.; Janknecht, R.; Matsumoto, H.; Hyink, D.P.; Kashiwada, S.; Obara, T. Extracellular vesicles from human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells repair organ damage caused by cadmium poisoning in a medaka model. Physiol. Rep. 2019, 7, e14172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed][Green Version]
* Information obtained from on 8 April 2020.
Mitchell, R.; Mellows, B.; Sheard, J.; Antonioli, M.; Kretz, O.; Chambers, D.; Zeuner, M.-T.; Tomkins, J.E.; Denecke, B.; Musante, L.; et al. Secretome of adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells promotes skeletal muscle regeneration through synergistic action of extracellular vesicle cargo and soluble proteins. Stem Cell Res. Ther. 2019, 10, 116. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Ngecer Togel di Warkop, Perempuan Muda Ini Nginap di Tahanan Polisi Lumajang Additionally, in a mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease, MSC-EVs (the source of the MSCs was not detailed) promoted neurogenesis and cognitive function recovery [67].
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The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
EV-scaffold transplantation/200 µg of total EV protein in 200 µL PBS
Yáñez-Mó, M.; Siljander, P.; Andreu, Z.; Zavec, A.B.; Borràs, F.E.; Buzas, E.I.; Buzas, K.; Casal, E.; Cappello, F.; Carvalho, J.; et al. Biological properties of extracellular vesicles and their physiological functions. J. Extracell. Vesicles 2015, 4, 27066. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
For some patients with end-organ dysfunction, whole organ transplantation is an established treatment option [1]. However, the limited availability of suitable autologous tissues, the risk of immune-mediated rejection, the required chronic immunosuppression treatment, and the possibility of disease transmission, highlight the need of new therapeutic approaches [2]. Tissue engineering and regenerative medicine strategies have triggered intense attention due to the potential to develop remedies for damaged, malfunctioning, or injured tissues [3]. Cell-based therapies, in their natural form or modified/engineered for a specific purpose, hold much promise in this regard. Indeed, in light of their multiple sources as well as therapeutic versatility, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have been proposed as the most appropriate cell source for these applications [4,5]. As stem cells, they exhibit beneficial characteristics as compared to terminally differentiated cells, including the potential to circumvent immuno-reaction in vitro and in vivo and to differentiate towards a broad range of specific cell lineages [6,7]. MSCs can be isolated from various tissue types including bone marrow, adipose, umbilical cord, peripheral blood, liver, periodontal ligament, lung and many others [8]. However, despite their potential and promise, MSCs face many challenges, such as their variability, scalability and delivery, as well as ethical considerations and safety issues [9,10,11,12,13], which challenge their clinical utility.
Bruno, S.; Grange, C.; Collino, F.; Deregibus, M.C.; Cantaluppi, V.; Biancone, L.; Tetta, C.; Camussi, G. Microvesicles derived from mesenchymal stem cells enhance survival in a lethal model of acute kidney injury. PLoS ONE 2012, 7, e33115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
particles in 1 mL PBS
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Enhanced tubular epithelial cell proliferation, reduced cell apoptosis [114]
Rabbit ADMSCs and BMMSCs
Enhanced proliferation and migration of Schwann cells via the activation JNK pathway and the up-regulation of c-JUN, Notch1, GFAP and SOX2 [54]
Increased collagen and elastin synthesis and decreased metalloproteinases activity [151]
EV-treated defects showed superior pain tolerance level and improved histological scores than the MSC-treated defects [96]
Bandar Togel di Telaga, Diciduk Resmob Polda Gorontalo particles in 200 μL PBS
Improved renal morphology through the anti-apoptotic behaviour of tubular epithelial cells [126]
Neurite outgrowth by transfer of miR-133b to neural cells [55]
Yuana, Y.; Sturk, A.; Nieuwland, R. Extracellular vesicles in physiological and pathological conditions. Blood Rev. 2013, 27, 31–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed][Green Version]
Potter, D.R.; Miyazawa, B.Y.; Gibb, S.L.; Deng, X.; Togaratti, P.P.; Croze, R.H.; Srivastava, A.K.; Trivedi, A.; Matthay, M.; Holcomb, J.B.; et al. Mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles attenuate pulmonary vascular permeability and lung injury induced by hemorrhagic shock and trauma. J. Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2018, 84, 245–256. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
(This article belongs to the Section Intracellular and Plasma Membranes)
Khatri, M.; Richardson, L.A.; Meulia, T. Mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles attenuate influenza virus-induced acute lung injury in a pig model. Stem Cell Res. Ther. 2018, 9, 17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed][Green Version]
/mouse; MSC-EV-float: 400 × 10
Ballen, K.; Zhao, Y.; Sun, L.; Sun, X.; Zhao, X.; Sun, X.; Qian, H.; Xu, W.; Zhu, W. Faculty of 1000 evaluation for exosomes derived from akt-modified human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells improve cardiac regeneration and promote angiogenesis via activating platelet-derived growth factor D. Stem cells Transl. 2017, 6, 51–59. [Google Scholar]
Ferreira, A.D.F.; Cunha, P.D.S.; Carregal, V.; Silva, P.D.C.D.; De Miranda, M.C.; Kunrath-Lima, M.; De Melo, M.I.A.; Faraco, C.C.F.; Barbosa, J.L.; Frézard, F.; et al. Extracellular vesicles from adipose-derived mesenchymal stem/stromal cells accelerate migration and activate akt pathway in human keratinocytes and fibroblasts independently of miR-205 activity. Stem Cells Int. 2017, 2017, 9841035. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Bucan, V.; Vaslaitis, D.; Peck, C.-T.; Strauss, S.; Vogt, P.M.; Radtke, C. Effect of exosomes from rat adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells on neurite outgrowth and sciatic nerve regeneration after crush injury. Mol. Neurobiol. 2018, 56, 1812–1824. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed][Green Version]
Differential centrifugation and sucrose gradient centrifugation (100,000× g)
Improved cardiac regeneration via paracrine modulation of endogenous mechanisms [75]
Renfrew Collingwood Community News January 2022 by Renfrew Collingwood Community News Human BMMSCs and human liver MSCs
Use Online Lottery Tips TGFβ primed MSC-EVs promoted cartilage tissue repair through Sp1 regulation [101]
Fang, S.; Xu, C.; Zhang, Y.; Xue, C.; Yang, C.; Bi, H.; Qian, X.; Wu, M.; Ji, K.; Zhao, Y.; et al. Umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomal microRNAs suppress myofibroblast differentiation by inhibiting the transforming growth factor-beta/SMAD2 pathway during wound healing. Stem Cells Transl. Med. 2016, 5, 1425–1439. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
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Enhanced muscle regeneration through increased myogenesis and angiogenesis [141]
Differential centrifugation and ultracentrifugation (112,700× g)
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Zhang, S.; Teo, K.Y.W.; Chuah, S.J.; Lai, R.C.; Lim, S.K.; Toh, W.S. MSC exosomes alleviate temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis by attenuating inflammation and restoring matrix homeostasis. Biomaterial 2019, 200, 35–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Enhanced cell migration, reduced oxidative cell stress and inflammation [160]
Injection/EVs derived from 1 × 10
EV-hydrogel transplantation/20 µg of total EV protein in 20 μL PBS
MacPherson, A.; Kimmelman, J. Ethical development of stem-cell-based interventions. Nat. Med. 2019, 25, 1037–1044. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
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EV-hydrogel transplantation/100 μg of total EV protein in 50 μl PBS
In addition to enriching EVs with specific miRNA as summarised above, other strategies have been used to augment the potency of MSC-EVs in cartilage repair. For instance, three-dimensional culture of UCMSCs in a hollow-fibre bioreactor resulted in a higher yield of EVs and superior therapeutic efficacy in a rabbit cartilage defect model, compared to MSC-EVs from conventional 2D cultures [106]. To ensure that MSC-EVs are retained at the site cartilage injury, human iPSC-EVs have been incorporated with in situ hydrogel glue. This acellular tissue patch was found to integrate with native cartilage matrix and promote cell deposition at cartilage defect sites, resulting in functional cartilage repair [107]. 3D printing has been described as the next generation of fabrication techniques in tissue engineering that enable the development of complex forms with high precision [108]. Interestingly, BMMSC-EVs together with cartilage ECM/gelatin methacrylate hydrogel have been used as bio-inks for the design of a bio-scaffold. The resulting 3D printed device promoted the targeted delivery of EVs, preventing mitochondrial dysfunction in degenerative chondrocytes in vitro, and facilitated the cartilage regeneration in an in vivo osteochondral defect rabbit model [109].
Chew, J.R.J.; Chuah, S.J.; Teo, K.Y.W.; Zhang, S.; Lai, R.C.; Fu, J.H.; Lim, L.P.; Lim, S.K.; Toh, W.S. Mesenchymal stem cell exosomes enhance periodontal ligament cell functions and promote periodontal regeneration. Acta Biomater. 2019, 89, 252–264. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Differential centrifugation and ultracentrifugation (120,000× g)
Reduced migration of pericytes and improved structural integrity of the BSCB [62]
Injuries in lung cells (in vitro)
Generator Togel Angka 2D3D4D for Android Enhanced wound healing through increased fibroblasts proliferation and angiogenesis and reduced skin cell apoptosis [156,157,158]
Figure 1. Examples of potential applications of MSC-EVs in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.
Injection/30 μg of total EV protein
Injection/80 μg total EV protein
Zavatti, M.; Beretti, F.; Casciaro, F.; Bertucci, E.; Maraldi, T. Comparison of the therapeutic effect of amniotic fluid stem cells and their exosomes on monoiodoacetate-induced animal model of osteoarthritis. BioFactors 2019, 46, 106–117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
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particles in 200 μL PBS
Broad Acres Street, Merritt Island, FL 32953 Injection/10 mg of total EV protein per kg
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Differential centrifugation and sucrose gradient ultracentrifugation (100,000× g)
Reduced calcification of synthetic vascular grafts by immunomodulation and improved vascular function [163]
Shabbir, A.; Cox, A.; Rodriguez-Menocal, L.; Salgado, M.; Van Badiavas, E. Mesenchymal stem cell exosomes induce proliferation and migration of normal and chronic wound fibroblasts, and enhance angiogenesis in vitro. Stem Cells Dev. 2015, 24, 1635–1647. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
for 24 h) prevented cardiomyocyte apoptosis through the enrichment of miR-125b-5p-EVs and miR-210-EVs. The associated mechanism here was suppression of pro-apoptotic genes p53 and BCL2-antagonist/killer 1 (BAK1) and increased recruitment of cardiac progenitor cells in the infarcted heart [80,81].
conqueror virtual challenges 2021 García-Manrique, P.; Matos, M.; Gutierrez, G.; Pazos, C.; Blanco-López, M.C. Therapeutic biomaterials based on extracellular vesicles: classification of bio-engineering and mimetic preparation routes. J. Extracell. Vesicles 2018, 7, 1422676. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
Park, K.-S.; Bandeira, E.; Shelke, G.V.; Lässer, C.; Lötvall, J. Enhancement of therapeutic potential of mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles. Stem Cell Res. Ther. 2019, 10, 288. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
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Bruno, S.; Grange, C.; Deregibus, M.C.; Calogero, R.A.; Saviozzi, S.; Collino, F.; Morando, L.; Busca, A.; Falda, M.; Bussolati, B.; et al. Mesenchymal stem cell-derived microvesicles protect against acute tubular injury. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2009, 20, 1053–1067. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
Injection/EVs derived from 10 × 10
Xin, H.; Li, Y.; Buller, B.; Katakowski, M.; Zhang, Y.; Wang, X.; Shang, X.; Zhang, Z.G.; Chopp, M. Exosome-mediated transfer of miR-133b from multipotent mesenchymal stromal cells to neural cells contributes to neurite outgrowth. STEM CELLS 2012, 30, 1556–1564. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
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particles in 20 µL serum-free media
Master Prediksi Togel Toto Gelap APK pour Android Télécharger EV-gel injection/1.3 × 10
Wound healing is a dynamic process that requires a complex of molecular and cellular events, including cellular migration, proliferation, angiogenesis, ECM deposition, and tissue remodelling [147]. Wounds that exhibit impaired or improper healing have failed to progress through the normal stages of healing i.e., homeostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodelling; leading to the formation of excessive scars [148]. Several studies have demonstrated the beneficial activities of MSC-EVs for various chronic wounds. In one such study, BMMSC-EVs enhanced, in a dose-dependent manner, the ex vivo proliferation and migration of fibroblasts from healthy donors and chronic wound patients. These EVs also mediated tube formation by endothelial cells, through the activation of pathways (Akt, ERK, and STAT3) involved in wound healing [149]. Another in vitro study suggested that cutaneous wound healing could be facilitated by increasing collagen synthesis and angiogenesis following treatment with human iPSC-EVs [150]. Higher collagen and elastin synthesis was also noted when human ADMSC-EVs were added to photo-damaged human dermal fibroblasts in vitro [151]. In vivo using a mouse skin incision model, injection of human ADMSC-EVs accelerated wound healing via modifying the phenotypic characteristics of fibroblasts. Specifically, collagen I and III distributions secreted by fibroblasts were increased in the early stage of wound healing while, in the late stage, collagen synthesis was diminished to reduce scar formation [152]. EVs from the same source were reported to trigger the migration and proliferation of keratinocytes and fibroblasts in vitro and in vivo in excisional wound-splinting rat models, by a mechanism involving the activation of Akt pathway [153]. lncRNA metastasis-associated lung adenocarcinoma transcript 1 found in human ADMSC-EVs contributed significantly to the migration and proliferation of dermal fibroblasts, promoting wound closure in a rat model of ischemic wound healing [154]. In a comparison study examining the effect of rabbit ADMSC-EVs and BMMSC-EVs on rat cutaneous wound models, treatment with ADMSC-EVs showed significant better healing [155].
Cao, L.; Xu, H.; Wang, G.; Liu, M.; Tian, D.; Yuan, Z. Extracellular vesicles derived from bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells attenuate dextran sodium sulfate-induced ulcerative colitis by promoting M2 macrophage polarization. Int. Immunopharmacol. 2019, 72, 264–274. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Windy Hill Road, Pensacola, FL 32526 Injection/200 μg of total EV protein
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Enhanced wound healing through migration and proliferation of dermal fibroblasts [154]
Gao, Y.; Liu, S.; Huang, J.; Guo, W.; Chen, J.; Zhang, L.; Zhao, B.; Peng, J.; Wang, A.; Wang, Y.; et al. The ECM-cell interaction of cartilage extracellular matrix on chondrocytes. BioMed Res. Int. 2014, 2014, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
Injection/200 μg of total EV protein in 20 μL PBS
Nagaishi, K.; Mizue, Y.; Chikenji, T.S.; Otani, M.; Nakano, M.; Konari, N.; Fujimiya, M. Mesenchymal stem cell therapy ameliorates diabetic nephropathy via the paracrine effect of renal trophic factors including exosomes. Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 34842. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Bandar Togel di Jayaloka Dibekuk by Dimitrios Tsiapalis Dimitrios Tsiapalis Scilit Google Scholar and Lorraine O’Driscoll Lorraine O’Driscoll Scilit Google Scholar *
Théry, C.; Witwer, K.W.; Aikawa, E.; Alcaraz, M.J.; Anderson, J.D.; Andriantsitohaina, R.; Antoniou, A.; Arab, T.; Archer, F.; Atkin-Smith, G.K.; et al. Minimal information for studies of extracellular vesicles 2018 (MISEV2018): a position statement of the International Society for Extracellular Vesicles and update of the MISEV2014 guidelines. J. Extracell. Vesicles 2018, 7, 1535750. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
Intravenous infusion of BMMSC-EVs (20 or 60 or 200 pmol phospholid/kg body weight)
particles/3 ml or 1 × 10
Increased hepatocyte proliferation in vitro and in vivo in a dose-dependent manner [135]
Influenza virus-induced acute lung injury
Injection/EVs derived from 3.5 × 10
Vonk, L.A.; Van Dooremalen, S.F.J.; Liv, N.; Klumperman, J.; Coffer, P.J.; Saris, D.B.; Lorenowicz, M.J. Mesenchymal stromal/stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles promote human cartilage regeneration in vitro. Theranostics 2018, 8, 906–920. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Zhao, L.; Li, L.; Zhang, P.; Jiang, H.; Chen, J. Genetic communication by extracellular vesicles is an important mechanism underlying stem cell-based therapy-mediated protection against acute kidney injury. Stem Cell Res. Ther. 2019, 10, 119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Improved osteoarthritis through balancing the synthesis and degradation of cartilage ECM [105]
He, J.; Wang, Y.; Lu, X.; Zhu, B.; Pei, X.; Wu, J.; Zhao, W. Micro-vesicles derived from bone marrow stem cells protect the kidney both in vivo and in vitro by microRNA-dependent repairing. Nephrology 2015, 20, 591–600. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Couillard-Despres, S.; Winner, B.; Schaubeck, S.; Aigner, R.; Vroemen, M.; Weidner, N.; Bogdahn, U.; Winkler, J.; Kuhn, H.-G.; Aigner, L. Doublecortin expression levels in adult brain reflect neurogenesis. Eur. J. Neurosci. 2005, 21, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Injection/50 μg of total EV protein per day for 7 days
Improved symptoms through stimulating M2 macrophage polarization and negative inflammatory response [167]
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Nong, K.; Wang, W.; Niu, X.; Hu, B.; Ma, C.; Bai, Y.; Wu, B.; Wang, Y.; Ai, K. Hepatoprotective effect of exosomes from human-induced pluripotent stem cell–derived mesenchymal stromal cells against hepatic ischemia-reperfusion injury in rats. Cytotherapy 2016, 18, 1548–1559. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
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Enhanced angiogenesis and muscle regeneration, and ischemic limp function [165]
The influence of MSC-EVs have been also assessed in skeletal muscle regeneration. For example, human BMMSC-EVs were found to augment myogenesis and angiogenesis in vitro (mediated by miRNAs such as miR-494) and to enhanced muscle regeneration [141]. Moreover, it was noted that EVs derived from amniotic fluid MSCs contain a spectrum of proteins and miRNAs capable of regulating inflammation and angiogenesis which, in turn, underpin skeletal muscle regeneration [142]. Bioinformatic (miRNA profile and proteomics) analysis of a study assessing the regenerative effect of human ADMSC-EVs on muscle injury showed that repair was mediated by factors distributed both within MSC-EVs and the soluble fraction of the secretome [143].
Injection/0.4 μg of total EV protein in 100 μL PBS
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Research efforts showed also the therapeutic efficacy of MSC-EVs in the context of central nervous system (CNS) repair. In a model of middle cerebral artery stroke (MCA), EVs derived from rat BMMSCs led to neurite outgrowth by transfer of miR-133b to neural cells [55]. Systemic administration of rat BMMSC-EVs increased the axonal density and synaptophysin-positive areas along the ischemic boundary zone of the cortex and striatum in MCA rats. This was accompanied by enhanced expression of newly synthesised doublecortin (a marker of neuroblasts [56]) and von Willebrand factor (a marker of endothelial cells [57]) as compared to the untreated controls, suggesting thus neurite remodelling, neurogenesis and angiogenesis as a novel treatment for stroke [58].
EV-gel transplantation/1.9 × 10
MSC-EVs immobilised in poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) stimulated the controlled release of EVs promoting MSC migration and homing in the bone defects [90]
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particles intravenously or intramuscularly after intervention, 0.5 × 10
Li, N.; Zhang, P.; Yao, X.; Li, H.; Shen, H.; Li, X.; Wu, J.; Lu, X. Exosomes derived from mir-133b-modified mesenchymal stem cells promote recovery after spinal cord injury. Front. Mol. Neurosci. 2018, 12, 845. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Canales-Aguirre, A.A.; Reza-Zaldivar, E.E.; Sapiéns, M.A.H.; Gutiérrez-Mercado, Y.K.; Sandoval-Ávila, S.; Gomez-Pinedo, U.; Márquez-Aguirre, A.L.; Vazquez-Mendez, E.; Padilla-Camberos, E. Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes promote neurogenesis and cognitive function recovery in a mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease. Neural Regen. Res. 2019, 14, 1626–1634. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
4. MSC-EVs in Tissue Engineering and Regeneration
Injection/200 μg of total EV protein in 200 μL PBS
Bandar Togel Terpercaya Situs Togel Deposit Pulsa 10rb Tanpa Potongan > Togel Deposit Pulsa Enhanced muscle regeneration through the activation, proliferation, and differentiation of muscle satellite cells [145]
Polresta Jayapura Kota Ciduk Agen Judi Togel di Kotaraja Zhang, J.; Liu, X.; Li, H.; Chen, C.-Y.; Hu, B.; Niu, X.; Li, Q.; Zhao, B.; Xie, Z.; Wang, Y. Exosomes/tricalcium phosphate combination scaffolds can enhance bone regeneration by activating the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. Stem Cell Res. Ther. 2016, 7, 136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed][Green Version]
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Enhanced muscle regeneration through regulation of inflammation and angiogenesis [142]
BMMSCs and their derived EVs synergistically improved cardiac function, reduced infarct size, and increased neovascularization [76]
Samsonraj, R.M.; Raghunath, M.; Nurcombe, V.; Hui, J.H.; Van Wijnen, A.J.; Cool, S.M. Concise review: multifaceted characterization of human mesenchymal stem cells for use in regenerative medicine. STEM CELLS Transl. Med. 2017, 6, 2173–2185. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
Injection/15 µg of total EV protein
Differential centrifugation and ultracentrifugation (110,000× g)
Zhang, J.; Guan, J.; Niu, X.; Hu, G.-W.; Guo, S.-C.; Li, Q.; Xie, Z.; Zhang, C.; Wang, Y. Exosomes released from human induced pluripotent stem cells-derived MSCs facilitate cutaneous wound healing by promoting collagen synthesis and angiogenesis. J. Transl. Med. 2015, 13, 49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
Ultracentrifugation (100,000× g) followed by sucrose gradient ultracentrifugation (100,000× g)
MSC-EVs loaded in three-dimensional polylactic acid scaffolds enhanced osteogenic properties and improved bone healing [94]
ExoQuick Exosome Precipitation Solution (SBI Systems Biosciences)
particles in 1 ml of pluronic F127 gel
Complex hemolymph circulation patterns in grasshopper wings MSC-EVs from human placenta have been tested in a multiple sclerosis mouse (MS) model. Here, MSC-EVs induced myelin regeneration in vitro by endogenous oligodendrocyte precursor cells differentiation into mature myelinating oligodendrocytes and increased myelination in the spinal cord of treated mice, following by improved motor function outcomes [65]. Furthermore, EVs from human BMMSCs that had been stimulated with interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), reduced neuroinflammation and demyelination improving the motor skills in a MS mouse autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model [66].
Han, C.; Zhou, J.; Liang, C.; Liu, B.; Pan, X.; Zhang, Y.; Wang, Y.; Yan, B.; Xie, W.; Liu, F.; et al. Human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cell derived exosomes encapsulated in functional peptide hydrogels promote cardiac repair. Biomater. Sci. 2019, 7, 2920–2933. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Pengamat Satelit Republik Indonesia 1 bantu UMKM di daerah 3T Evaluating the potential benefits of MSC-EVs in relation to liver disease, in a carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-induced liver injury mouse model human embryonic MSC-EVs were found to promote hepatic regeneration, by increasing hepatocyte proliferation and reduced hepatocyte apoptosis [133]. Moreover, human iPSC-EVs enhanced hepatic regeneration in hepatic ischemia-reperfusion injury rat models, by inhibiting apoptosis of hepatic cells, suppressing inflammatory responses, and attenuating the oxidative stress response [134]. Human iPSC-EVs were also reported to induce hepatocyte proliferation in vitro and in vivo in a dose-dependent manner, which is related to the activation of sphingosine kinase and sphingosine-1-phosphate signalling pathway [135], known to promote cell proliferation in various cell types [136,137,138]. Similarly, treatment with human UCMSC-EVs has been shown to ameliorate the infiltration of neutrophils and diminish oxidative stress in hepatic tissue; therefore protecting against hepatic apoptosis [139]. To further enhance the benefits of EVs, human embryonic MSC-EVs were encapsulated in PEG hydrogels for sustain systemic delivery against hepatic failure. Here, EVs accumulated in the liver of the rat model of chronic hepatic fibrosis for prolonged time, exerting superior anti-apoptosis, anti-fibrosis and regenerative properties as compared to conventional EV injection [140].
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Mesenchymal Stem Cell Derived Extracellular Vesicles for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine Applications
Zhu, J.; Lu, K.; Zhang, N.; Zhao, Y.; Ma, Q.; Shen, J.; Lin, Y.; Xiang, P.; Tang, Y.; Hu, X.; et al. Myocardial reparative functions of exosomes from mesenchymal stem cells are enhanced by hypoxia treatment of the cells via transferring microRNA-210 in an nSMase2-dependent way. Artif. Cells Nanomed. Biotechnol. 2018, 46, 1659–1670. [Google Scholar] [PubMed][Green Version]
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Hypoxia-elicited BMMSC-EVs showed higher cardiac regeneration as compared to MSC-EVs isolated in normoxia [79]
Xin, H.; Li, Y.; Cui, Y.; Yang, J.J.; Zhang, Z.G.; Chopp, M. Systemic administration of exosomes released from mesenchymal stromal cells promote functional recovery and neurovascular plasticity after stroke in rats. Br. J. Pharmacol. 2013, 33, 1711–1715. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
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Guillorme delivers in a pinch as the Mets edge the Dodgers 2 1 in 10 following Scherzeru0027s gem Enhanced wound healing through increased migration and proliferation of keratinocytes and fibroblasts [153]
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